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Extensive comments about the pickle protocols and pickle-machine opcodes
can be found here. Some functions meant for external use:
genops(pickle)
Generate all the opcodes in a pickle, as (opcode, arg, position) triples.
dis(pickle, out=None, memo=None, indentlevel=4)
Print a symbolic disassembly of a pickle.
i Nu disu genopsu optimizei i i i c B s& | Ee Z d Z d Z d d � Z d S( u ArgumentDescriptoru nameu nu readeru docc C s( | | _ | | _ | | _ | | _ d S( N( u nameu nu readeru doc( u selfu nameu nu readeru doc( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu __init__� s u ArgumentDescriptor.__init__N( u nameu nu readeru doc( u __name__u
__module__u __qualname__u __slots__u __init__( u
__locals__( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu ArgumentDescriptor� s
u ArgumentDescriptor( u unpackc C s- | j d � } | r | d St d � � d S( uG
>>> import io
>>> read_uint1(io.BytesIO(b'\xff'))
255
i i u' not enough data in stream to read uint1N( u readu
ValueError( u fu data( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu
read_uint1� s u
read_uint1u nameu uint1u nu readeru docu One-byte unsigned integer.c C sB | j d � } t | � d k r2 t d | � d St d � � d S( u�
>>> import io
>>> read_uint2(io.BytesIO(b'\xff\x00'))
255
>>> read_uint2(io.BytesIO(b'\xff\xff'))
65535
i u <Hi u' not enough data in stream to read uint2N( u readu lenu _unpacku
ValueError( u fu data( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu
read_uint2� s u
read_uint2u uint2u) Two-byte unsigned integer, little-endian.c C sB | j d � } t | � d k r2 t d | � d St d � � d S( u�
>>> import io
>>> read_int4(io.BytesIO(b'\xff\x00\x00\x00'))
255
>>> read_int4(io.BytesIO(b'\x00\x00\x00\x80')) == -(2**31)
True
i u <ii u& not enough data in stream to read int4N( u readu lenu _unpacku
ValueError( u fu data( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu read_int4� s u read_int4u int4u8 Four-byte signed integer, little-endian, 2's complement.c C sB | j d � } t | � d k r2 t d | � d St d � � d S( u�
>>> import io
>>> read_uint4(io.BytesIO(b'\xff\x00\x00\x00'))
255
>>> read_uint4(io.BytesIO(b'\x00\x00\x00\x80')) == 2**31
True
i u <Ii u' not enough data in stream to read uint4N( u readu lenu _unpacku
ValueError( u fu data( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu
read_uint4 s u
read_uint4u uint4u* Four-byte unsigned integer, little-endian.c C s� | j � } | j d � s* t d � � n | d d � } | r� xl d D]Q } | j | � rG | j | � s� t d | | f � � n | d d
� } PqG qG Wt d | � � n | r� t j | � d j d
� } n | S( uu
>>> import io
>>> read_stringnl(io.BytesIO(b"'abcd'\nefg\n"))
'abcd'
>>> read_stringnl(io.BytesIO(b"\n"))
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: no string quotes around b''
>>> read_stringnl(io.BytesIO(b"\n"), stripquotes=False)
''
>>> read_stringnl(io.BytesIO(b"''\n"))
''
>>> read_stringnl(io.BytesIO(b'"abcd"'))
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: no newline found when trying to read stringnl
Embedded escapes are undone in the result.
>>> read_stringnl(io.BytesIO(br"'a\n\\b\x00c\td'" + b"\n'e'"))
'a\n\\b\x00c\td'
s
u- no newline found when trying to read stringnlNi s "s 'u, strinq quote %r not found at both ends of %ru no string quotes around %ri u asciii����( s "s 'i����( u readlineu endswithu
ValueErroru
startswithu codecsu
escape_decodeu decode( u fu decodeu stripquotesu datau q( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu
read_stringnl$ s
u
read_stringnlu stringnlu� A newline-terminated string.
This is a repr-style string, with embedded escapes, and
bracketing quotes.
c C s t | d d �S( Nu stripquotesF( u
read_stringnlu False( u f( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu read_stringnl_noescape] s u read_stringnl_noescapeu stringnl_noescapeu A newline-terminated string.
This is a str-style string, without embedded escapes,
or bracketing quotes. It should consist solely of
printable ASCII characters.
c C s d t | � t | � f S( up
>>> import io
>>> read_stringnl_noescape_pair(io.BytesIO(b"Queue\nEmpty\njunk"))
'Queue Empty'
u %s %s( u read_stringnl_noescape( u f( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu read_stringnl_noescape_pairk s u read_stringnl_noescape_pairu stringnl_noescape_pairu� A pair of newline-terminated strings.
These are str-style strings, without embedded
escapes, or bracketing quotes. They should
consist solely of printable ASCII characters.
The pair is returned as a single string, with
a single blank separating the two strings.
c C sy t | � } | d k r+ t d | � � n | j | � } t | � | k rY | j d � St d | t | � f � � d S( uP
>>> import io
>>> read_string4(io.BytesIO(b"\x00\x00\x00\x00abc"))
''
>>> read_string4(io.BytesIO(b"\x03\x00\x00\x00abcdef"))
'abc'
>>> read_string4(io.BytesIO(b"\x00\x00\x00\x03abcdef"))
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: expected 50331648 bytes in a string4, but only 6 remain
i u string4 byte count < 0: %du latin-1u2 expected %d bytes in a string4, but only %d remainN( u read_int4u
ValueErroru readu lenu decode( u fu nu data( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu read_string4� s
u read_string4u string4u� A counted string.
The first argument is a 4-byte little-endian signed int giving
the number of bytes in the string, and the second argument is
that many bytes.
c C sZ t | � } | j | � } t | � | k r: | j d � St d | t | � f � � d S( u�
>>> import io
>>> read_string1(io.BytesIO(b"\x00"))
''
>>> read_string1(io.BytesIO(b"\x03abcdef"))
'abc'
u latin-1u2 expected %d bytes in a string1, but only %d remainN( u
read_uint1u readu lenu decodeu
ValueError( u fu nu data( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu read_string1� s
u read_string1u string1u� A counted string.
The first argument is a 1-byte unsigned int giving the number
of bytes in the string, and the second argument is that many
bytes.
c C sQ t | � } | j | � } t | � | k r1 | St d | t | � f � � d S( u�
>>> import io
>>> read_bytes1(io.BytesIO(b"\x00"))
b''
>>> read_bytes1(io.BytesIO(b"\x03abcdef"))
b'abc'
u1 expected %d bytes in a bytes1, but only %d remainN( u
read_uint1u readu lenu
ValueError( u fu nu data( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu read_bytes1� s u read_bytes1u bytes1u� A counted bytes string.
The first argument is a 1-byte unsigned int giving the number
of bytes, and the second argument is that many bytes.
c C ss t | � } | t j k r. t d | � � n | j | � } t | � | k rS | St d | t | � f � � d S( uN
>>> import io
>>> read_bytes4(io.BytesIO(b"\x00\x00\x00\x00abc"))
b''
>>> read_bytes4(io.BytesIO(b"\x03\x00\x00\x00abcdef"))
b'abc'
>>> read_bytes4(io.BytesIO(b"\x00\x00\x00\x03abcdef"))
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: expected 50331648 bytes in a bytes4, but only 6 remain
u# bytes4 byte count > sys.maxsize: %du1 expected %d bytes in a bytes4, but only %d remainN( u
read_uint4u sysu maxsizeu
ValueErroru readu len( u fu nu data( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu read_bytes4� s
u read_bytes4u bytes4u� A counted bytes string.
The first argument is a 4-byte little-endian unsigned int giving
the number of bytes, and the second argument is that many bytes.
c C sG | j � } | j d � s* t d � � n | d d � } t | d � S( um
>>> import io
>>> read_unicodestringnl(io.BytesIO(b"abc\\uabcd\njunk")) == 'abc\uabcd'
True
s
u4 no newline found when trying to read unicodestringnlNi u raw-unicode-escapei����( u readlineu endswithu
ValueErroru str( u fu data( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu read_unicodestringnl� s
u read_unicodestringnlu unicodestringnlu� A newline-terminated Unicode string.
This is raw-unicode-escape encoded, so consists of
printable ASCII characters, and may contain embedded
escape sequences.
c C s t | � } | t j k r. t d | � � n | j | � } t | � | k r_ t | d d � St d | t | � f � � d S( u�
>>> import io
>>> s = 'abcd\uabcd'
>>> enc = s.encode('utf-8')
>>> enc
b'abcd\xea\xaf\x8d'
>>> n = bytes([len(enc), 0, 0, 0]) # little-endian 4-byte length
>>> t = read_unicodestring4(io.BytesIO(n + enc + b'junk'))
>>> s == t
True
>>> read_unicodestring4(io.BytesIO(n + enc[:-1]))
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: expected 7 bytes in a unicodestring4, but only 6 remain
u+ unicodestring4 byte count > sys.maxsize: %du utf-8u
surrogatepassu9 expected %d bytes in a unicodestring4, but only %d remainN( u
read_uint4u sysu maxsizeu
ValueErroru readu lenu str( u fu nu data( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu read_unicodestring4 s u read_unicodestring4u unicodestring4uA A counted Unicode string.
The first argument is a 4-byte little-endian signed int
giving the number of bytes in the string, and the second
argument-- the UTF-8 encoding of the Unicode string --
contains that many bytes.
c C sB t | d d d d �} | d k r( d S| d k r8 d St | � S( u�
>>> import io
>>> read_decimalnl_short(io.BytesIO(b"1234\n56"))
1234
>>> read_decimalnl_short(io.BytesIO(b"1234L\n56"))
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: b'1234L'
u decodeu stripquotess 00s 01FT( u
read_stringnlu Falseu Trueu int( u fu s( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu read_decimalnl_short> s u read_decimalnl_shortc C sK t | d d d d �} | d d � d k rA | d d � } n t | � S( u�
>>> import io
>>> read_decimalnl_long(io.BytesIO(b"1234L\n56"))
1234
>>> read_decimalnl_long(io.BytesIO(b"123456789012345678901234L\n6"))
123456789012345678901234
u decodeu stripquotesi Ns LFi����i����( u
read_stringnlu Falseu int( u fu s( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu read_decimalnl_longT s u read_decimalnl_longu decimalnl_shortu� A newline-terminated decimal integer literal.
This never has a trailing 'L', and the integer fit
in a short Python int on the box where the pickle
was written -- but there's no guarantee it will fit
in a short Python int on the box where the pickle
is read.
u decimalnl_longu� A newline-terminated decimal integer literal.
This has a trailing 'L', and can represent integers
of any size.
c C s" t | d d d d �} t | � S( uO
>>> import io
>>> read_floatnl(io.BytesIO(b"-1.25\n6"))
-1.25
u decodeu stripquotesF( u
read_stringnlu Falseu float( u fu s( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu read_floatnl} s u read_floatnlu floatnlu� A newline-terminated decimal floating literal.
In general this requires 17 significant digits for roundtrip
identity, and pickling then unpickling infinities, NaNs, and
minus zero doesn't work across boxes, or on some boxes even
on itself (e.g., Windows can't read the strings it produces
for infinities or NaNs).
c C sB | j d � } t | � d k r2 t d | � d St d � � d S( u�
>>> import io, struct
>>> raw = struct.pack(">d", -1.25)
>>> raw
b'\xbf\xf4\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
>>> read_float8(io.BytesIO(raw + b"\n"))
-1.25
i u >di u( not enough data in stream to read float8N( u readu lenu _unpacku
ValueError( u fu data( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu read_float8� s
u read_float8u float8i u An 8-byte binary representation of a float, big-endian.
The format is unique to Python, and shared with the struct
module (format string '>d') "in theory" (the struct and pickle
implementations don't share the code -- they should). It's
strongly related to the IEEE-754 double format, and, in normal
cases, is in fact identical to the big-endian 754 double format.
On other boxes the dynamic range is limited to that of a 754
double, and "add a half and chop" rounding is used to reduce
the precision to 53 bits. However, even on a 754 box,
infinities, NaNs, and minus zero may not be handled correctly
(may not survive roundtrip pickling intact).
( u decode_longc C sF t | � } | j | � } t | � | k r< t d � � n t | � S( u+
>>> import io
>>> read_long1(io.BytesIO(b"\x00"))
0
>>> read_long1(io.BytesIO(b"\x02\xff\x00"))
255
>>> read_long1(io.BytesIO(b"\x02\xff\x7f"))
32767
>>> read_long1(io.BytesIO(b"\x02\x00\xff"))
-256
>>> read_long1(io.BytesIO(b"\x02\x00\x80"))
-32768
u' not enough data in stream to read long1( u
read_uint1u readu lenu
ValueErroru decode_long( u fu nu data( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu
read_long1� s
u
read_long1u long1u A binary long, little-endian, using 1-byte size.
This first reads one byte as an unsigned size, then reads that
many bytes and interprets them as a little-endian 2's-complement long.
If the size is 0, that's taken as a shortcut for the long 0L.
c C se t | � } | d k r+ t d | � � n | j | � } t | � | k r[ t d � � n t | � S( ug
>>> import io
>>> read_long4(io.BytesIO(b"\x02\x00\x00\x00\xff\x00"))
255
>>> read_long4(io.BytesIO(b"\x02\x00\x00\x00\xff\x7f"))
32767
>>> read_long4(io.BytesIO(b"\x02\x00\x00\x00\x00\xff"))
-256
>>> read_long4(io.BytesIO(b"\x02\x00\x00\x00\x00\x80"))
-32768
>>> read_long1(io.BytesIO(b"\x00\x00\x00\x00"))
0
i u long4 byte count < 0: %du' not enough data in stream to read long4( u read_int4u
ValueErroru readu lenu decode_long( u fu nu data( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu
read_long4� s u
read_long4u long4u� A binary representation of a long, little-endian.
This first reads four bytes as a signed size (but requires the
size to be >= 0), then reads that many bytes and interprets them
as a little-endian 2's-complement long. If the size is 0, that's taken
as a shortcut for the int 0, although LONG1 should really be used
then instead (and in any case where # of bytes < 256).
c B s2 | Ee Z d Z d Z d d � Z d d � Z d S(
u StackObjectu nameu obtypeu docc C sB | | _ t | t � r, x | D] } q Wn | | _ | | _ d S( N( u nameu
isinstanceu tupleu obtypeu doc( u selfu nameu obtypeu docu contained( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu __init__ s
u StackObject.__init__c C s | j S( N( u name( u self( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu __repr__ s u StackObject.__repr__N( u nameu obtypeu doc( u __name__u
__module__u __qualname__u __slots__u __init__u __repr__( u
__locals__( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu StackObject s
u StackObjectu intu obtypeu3 A short (as opposed to long) Python integer object.u longu3 A long (as opposed to short) Python integer object.u int_or_boolu: A Python integer object (short or long), or a Python bool.u boolu A Python bool object.u floatu A Python float object.u stringu A Python (8-bit) string object.u bytesu A Python bytes object.u stru! A Python (Unicode) string object.u Noneu The Python None object.u tupleu A Python tuple object.u listu A Python list object.u dictu A Python dict object.u anyu Any kind of object whatsoever.u marku 'The mark' is a unique object.
Opcodes that operate on a variable number of objects
generally don't embed the count of objects in the opcode,
or pull it off the stack. Instead the MARK opcode is used
to push a special marker object on the stack, and then
some other opcodes grab all the objects from the top of
the stack down to (but not including) the topmost marker
object.
u
stacksliceuL An object representing a contiguous slice of the stack.
This is used in conjunction with markobject, to represent all
of the stack following the topmost markobject. For example,
the POP_MARK opcode changes the stack from
[..., markobject, stackslice]
to
[...]
No matter how many object are on the stack after the topmost
markobject, POP_MARK gets rid of all of them (including the
topmost markobject too).
c B s& | Ee Z d Z d Z d d � Z d
S( u
OpcodeInfou nameu codeu argu stack_beforeu stack_afteru protou docc C se | | _ | | _ | | _ x | D] } q" W| | _ x | D] } q< W| | _ | | _ | | _ d S( N( u nameu codeu argu stack_beforeu stack_afteru protou doc( u selfu nameu codeu argu stack_beforeu stack_afteru protou docu x( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu __init__� s
u OpcodeInfo.__init__N( u nameu codeu argu stack_beforeu stack_afteru protou doc( u __name__u
__module__u __qualname__u __slots__u __init__( u
__locals__( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu
OpcodeInfo� s u
OpcodeInfou INTu codeu Iu argu stack_beforeu stack_afteru protou� Push an integer or bool.
The argument is a newline-terminated decimal literal string.
The intent may have been that this always fit in a short Python int,
but INT can be generated in pickles written on a 64-bit box that
require a Python long on a 32-bit box. The difference between this
and LONG then is that INT skips a trailing 'L', and produces a short
int whenever possible.
Another difference is due to that, when bool was introduced as a
distinct type in 2.3, builtin names True and False were also added to
2.2.2, mapping to ints 1 and 0. For compatibility in both directions,
True gets pickled as INT + "I01\n", and False as INT + "I00\n".
Leading zeroes are never produced for a genuine integer. The 2.3
(and later) unpicklers special-case these and return bool instead;
earlier unpicklers ignore the leading "0" and return the int.
u BININTu Ju1 Push a four-byte signed integer.
This handles the full range of Python (short) integers on a 32-bit
box, directly as binary bytes (1 for the opcode and 4 for the integer).
If the integer is non-negative and fits in 1 or 2 bytes, pickling via
BININT1 or BININT2 saves space.
u BININT1u Ku� Push a one-byte unsigned integer.
This is a space optimization for pickling very small non-negative ints,
in range(256).
u BININT2u Mu� Push a two-byte unsigned integer.
This is a space optimization for pickling small positive ints, in
range(256, 2**16). Integers in range(256) can also be pickled via
BININT2, but BININT1 instead saves a byte.
u LONGu Lu� Push a long integer.
The same as INT, except that the literal ends with 'L', and always
unpickles to a Python long. There doesn't seem a real purpose to the
trailing 'L'.
Note that LONG takes time quadratic in the number of digits when
unpickling (this is simply due to the nature of decimal->binary
conversion). Proto 2 added linear-time (in C; still quadratic-time
in Python) LONG1 and LONG4 opcodes.
u LONG1u u| Long integer using one-byte length.
A more efficient encoding of a Python long; the long1 encoding
says it all.u LONG4u u~ Long integer using found-byte length.
A more efficient encoding of a Python long; the long4 encoding
says it all.u STRINGu Sua Push a Python string object.
The argument is a repr-style string, with bracketing quote characters,
and perhaps embedded escapes. The argument extends until the next
newline character. (Actually, they are decoded into a str instance
using the encoding given to the Unpickler constructor. or the default,
'ASCII'.)
u BINSTRINGu Tu� Push a Python string object.
There are two arguments: the first is a 4-byte little-endian signed int
giving the number of bytes in the string, and the second is that many
bytes, which are taken literally as the string content. (Actually,
they are decoded into a str instance using the encoding given to the
Unpickler constructor. or the default, 'ASCII'.)
u SHORT_BINSTRINGu Uu Push a Python string object.
There are two arguments: the first is a 1-byte unsigned int giving
the number of bytes in the string, and the second is that many bytes,
which are taken literally as the string content. (Actually, they
are decoded into a str instance using the encoding given to the
Unpickler constructor. or the default, 'ASCII'.)
u BINBYTESu Bu� Push a Python bytes object.
There are two arguments: the first is a 4-byte little-endian unsigned int
giving the number of bytes, and the second is that many bytes, which are
taken literally as the bytes content.
u SHORT_BINBYTESu Cu� Push a Python bytes object.
There are two arguments: the first is a 1-byte unsigned int giving
the number of bytes, and the second is that many bytes, which are taken
literally as the string content.
u NONEu Nu Push None on the stack.u NEWTRUEu u& True.
Push True onto the stack.u NEWFALSEu u' True.
Push False onto the stack.u UNICODEu Vu� Push a Python Unicode string object.
The argument is a raw-unicode-escape encoding of a Unicode string,
and so may contain embedded escape sequences. The argument extends
until the next newline character.
u
BINUNICODEu Xu Push a Python Unicode string object.
There are two arguments: the first is a 4-byte little-endian unsigned int
giving the number of bytes in the string. The second is that many
bytes, and is the UTF-8 encoding of the Unicode string.
u FLOATu Fu� Newline-terminated decimal float literal.
The argument is repr(a_float), and in general requires 17 significant
digits for roundtrip conversion to be an identity (this is so for
IEEE-754 double precision values, which is what Python float maps to
on most boxes).
In general, FLOAT cannot be used to transport infinities, NaNs, or
minus zero across boxes (or even on a single box, if the platform C
library can't read the strings it produces for such things -- Windows
is like that), but may do less damage than BINFLOAT on boxes with
greater precision or dynamic range than IEEE-754 double.
u BINFLOATu Gu� Float stored in binary form, with 8 bytes of data.
This generally requires less than half the space of FLOAT encoding.
In general, BINFLOAT cannot be used to transport infinities, NaNs, or
minus zero, raises an exception if the exponent exceeds the range of
an IEEE-754 double, and retains no more than 53 bits of precision (if
there are more than that, "add a half and chop" rounding is used to
cut it back to 53 significant bits).
u
EMPTY_LISTu ]u Push an empty list.u APPENDu au� Append an object to a list.
Stack before: ... pylist anyobject
Stack after: ... pylist+[anyobject]
although pylist is really extended in-place.
u APPENDSu eu� Extend a list by a slice of stack objects.
Stack before: ... pylist markobject stackslice
Stack after: ... pylist+stackslice
although pylist is really extended in-place.
u LISTu lus Build a list out of the topmost stack slice, after markobject.
All the stack entries following the topmost markobject are placed into
a single Python list, which single list object replaces all of the
stack from the topmost markobject onward. For example,
Stack before: ... markobject 1 2 3 'abc'
Stack after: ... [1, 2, 3, 'abc']
u EMPTY_TUPLEu )u Push an empty tuple.u TUPLEu tuv Build a tuple out of the topmost stack slice, after markobject.
All the stack entries following the topmost markobject are placed into
a single Python tuple, which single tuple object replaces all of the
stack from the topmost markobject onward. For example,
Stack before: ... markobject 1 2 3 'abc'
Stack after: ... (1, 2, 3, 'abc')
u TUPLE1u
u� Build a one-tuple out of the topmost item on the stack.
This code pops one value off the stack and pushes a tuple of
length 1 whose one item is that value back onto it. In other
words:
stack[-1] = tuple(stack[-1:])
u TUPLE2u u Build a two-tuple out of the top two items on the stack.
This code pops two values off the stack and pushes a tuple of
length 2 whose items are those values back onto it. In other
words:
stack[-2:] = [tuple(stack[-2:])]
u TUPLE3u u Build a three-tuple out of the top three items on the stack.
This code pops three values off the stack and pushes a tuple of
length 3 whose items are those values back onto it. In other
words:
stack[-3:] = [tuple(stack[-3:])]
u
EMPTY_DICTu }u Push an empty dict.u DICTu du� Build a dict out of the topmost stack slice, after markobject.
All the stack entries following the topmost markobject are placed into
a single Python dict, which single dict object replaces all of the
stack from the topmost markobject onward. The stack slice alternates
key, value, key, value, .... For example,
Stack before: ... markobject 1 2 3 'abc'
Stack after: ... {1: 2, 3: 'abc'}
u SETITEMu su� Add a key+value pair to an existing dict.
Stack before: ... pydict key value
Stack after: ... pydict
where pydict has been modified via pydict[key] = value.
u SETITEMSu uu\ Add an arbitrary number of key+value pairs to an existing dict.
The slice of the stack following the topmost markobject is taken as
an alternating sequence of keys and values, added to the dict
immediately under the topmost markobject. Everything at and after the
topmost markobject is popped, leaving the mutated dict at the top
of the stack.
Stack before: ... pydict markobject key_1 value_1 ... key_n value_n
Stack after: ... pydict
where pydict has been modified via pydict[key_i] = value_i for i in
1, 2, ..., n, and in that order.
u POPu 0u< Discard the top stack item, shrinking the stack by one item.u DUPu 2u= Push the top stack item onto the stack again, duplicating it.u MARKu (u� Push markobject onto the stack.
markobject is a unique object, used by other opcodes to identify a
region of the stack containing a variable number of objects for them
to work on. See markobject.doc for more detail.
u POP_MARKu 1u Pop all the stack objects at and above the topmost markobject.
When an opcode using a variable number of stack objects is done,
POP_MARK is used to remove those objects, and to remove the markobject
that delimited their starting position on the stack.
u GETu gu� Read an object from the memo and push it on the stack.
The index of the memo object to push is given by the newline-terminated
decimal string following. BINGET and LONG_BINGET are space-optimized
versions.
u BINGETu hu� Read an object from the memo and push it on the stack.
The index of the memo object to push is given by the 1-byte unsigned
integer following.
u LONG_BINGETu ju� Read an object from the memo and push it on the stack.
The index of the memo object to push is given by the 4-byte unsigned
little-endian integer following.
u PUTu pu� Store the stack top into the memo. The stack is not popped.
The index of the memo location to write into is given by the newline-
terminated decimal string following. BINPUT and LONG_BINPUT are
space-optimized versions.
u BINPUTu qu� Store the stack top into the memo. The stack is not popped.
The index of the memo location to write into is given by the 1-byte
unsigned integer following.
u LONG_BINPUTu ru� Store the stack top into the memo. The stack is not popped.
The index of the memo location to write into is given by the 4-byte
unsigned little-endian integer following.
u EXT1u u� Extension code.
This code and the similar EXT2 and EXT4 allow using a registry
of popular objects that are pickled by name, typically classes.
It is envisioned that through a global negotiation and
registration process, third parties can set up a mapping between
ints and object names.
In order to guarantee pickle interchangeability, the extension
code registry ought to be global, although a range of codes may
be reserved for private use.
EXT1 has a 1-byte integer argument. This is used to index into the
extension registry, and the object at that index is pushed on the stack.
u EXT2u uN Extension code.
See EXT1. EXT2 has a two-byte integer argument.
u EXT4u uO Extension code.
See EXT1. EXT4 has a four-byte integer argument.
u GLOBALu cu� Push a global object (module.attr) on the stack.
Two newline-terminated strings follow the GLOBAL opcode. The first is
taken as a module name, and the second as a class name. The class
object module.class is pushed on the stack. More accurately, the
object returned by self.find_class(module, class) is pushed on the
stack, so unpickling subclasses can override this form of lookup.
u REDUCEu RuL Push an object built from a callable and an argument tuple.
The opcode is named to remind of the __reduce__() method.
Stack before: ... callable pytuple
Stack after: ... callable(*pytuple)
The callable and the argument tuple are the first two items returned
by a __reduce__ method. Applying the callable to the argtuple is
supposed to reproduce the original object, or at least get it started.
If the __reduce__ method returns a 3-tuple, the last component is an
argument to be passed to the object's __setstate__, and then the REDUCE
opcode is followed by code to create setstate's argument, and then a
BUILD opcode to apply __setstate__ to that argument.
If not isinstance(callable, type), REDUCE complains unless the
callable has been registered with the copyreg module's
safe_constructors dict, or the callable has a magic
'__safe_for_unpickling__' attribute with a true value. I'm not sure
why it does this, but I've sure seen this complaint often enough when
I didn't want to <wink>.
u BUILDu bu� Finish building an object, via __setstate__ or dict update.
Stack before: ... anyobject argument
Stack after: ... anyobject
where anyobject may have been mutated, as follows:
If the object has a __setstate__ method,
anyobject.__setstate__(argument)
is called.
Else the argument must be a dict, the object must have a __dict__, and
the object is updated via
anyobject.__dict__.update(argument)
u INSTu iuq Build a class instance.
This is the protocol 0 version of protocol 1's OBJ opcode.
INST is followed by two newline-terminated strings, giving a
module and class name, just as for the GLOBAL opcode (and see
GLOBAL for more details about that). self.find_class(module, name)
is used to get a class object.
In addition, all the objects on the stack following the topmost
markobject are gathered into a tuple and popped (along with the
topmost markobject), just as for the TUPLE opcode.
Now it gets complicated. If all of these are true:
+ The argtuple is empty (markobject was at the top of the stack
at the start).
+ The class object does not have a __getinitargs__ attribute.
then we want to create an old-style class instance without invoking
its __init__() method (pickle has waffled on this over the years; not
calling __init__() is current wisdom). In this case, an instance of
an old-style dummy class is created, and then we try to rebind its
__class__ attribute to the desired class object. If this succeeds,
the new instance object is pushed on the stack, and we're done.
Else (the argtuple is not empty, it's not an old-style class object,
or the class object does have a __getinitargs__ attribute), the code
first insists that the class object have a __safe_for_unpickling__
attribute. Unlike as for the __safe_for_unpickling__ check in REDUCE,
it doesn't matter whether this attribute has a true or false value, it
only matters whether it exists (XXX this is a bug). If
__safe_for_unpickling__ doesn't exist, UnpicklingError is raised.
Else (the class object does have a __safe_for_unpickling__ attr),
the class object obtained from INST's arguments is applied to the
argtuple obtained from the stack, and the resulting instance object
is pushed on the stack.
NOTE: checks for __safe_for_unpickling__ went away in Python 2.3.
NOTE: the distinction between old-style and new-style classes does
not make sense in Python 3.
u OBJu ou� Build a class instance.
This is the protocol 1 version of protocol 0's INST opcode, and is
very much like it. The major difference is that the class object
is taken off the stack, allowing it to be retrieved from the memo
repeatedly if several instances of the same class are created. This
can be much more efficient (in both time and space) than repeatedly
embedding the module and class names in INST opcodes.
Unlike INST, OBJ takes no arguments from the opcode stream. Instead
the class object is taken off the stack, immediately above the
topmost markobject:
Stack before: ... markobject classobject stackslice
Stack after: ... new_instance_object
As for INST, the remainder of the stack above the markobject is
gathered into an argument tuple, and then the logic seems identical,
except that no __safe_for_unpickling__ check is done (XXX this is
a bug). See INST for the gory details.
NOTE: In Python 2.3, INST and OBJ are identical except for how they
get the class object. That was always the intent; the implementations
had diverged for accidental reasons.
u NEWOBJu uL Build an object instance.
The stack before should be thought of as containing a class
object followed by an argument tuple (the tuple being the stack
top). Call these cls and args. They are popped off the stack,
and the value returned by cls.__new__(cls, *args) is pushed back
onto the stack.
u PROTOu u� Protocol version indicator.
For protocol 2 and above, a pickle must start with this opcode.
The argument is the protocol version, an int in range(2, 256).
u STOPu .u� Stop the unpickling machine.
Every pickle ends with this opcode. The object at the top of the stack
is popped, and that's the result of unpickling. The stack should be
empty then.
u PERSIDu Pu Push an object identified by a persistent ID.
The pickle module doesn't define what a persistent ID means. PERSID's
argument is a newline-terminated str-style (no embedded escapes, no
bracketing quote characters) string, which *is* "the persistent ID".
The unpickler passes this string to self.persistent_load(). Whatever
object that returns is pushed on the stack. There is no implementation
of persistent_load() in Python's unpickler: it must be supplied by an
unpickler subclass.
u BINPERSIDu QuX Push an object identified by a persistent ID.
Like PERSID, except the persistent ID is popped off the stack (instead
of being a string embedded in the opcode bytestream). The persistent
ID is passed to self.persistent_load(), and whatever object that
returns is pushed on the stack. See PERSID for more detail.
u% repeated name %r at indices %d and %du% repeated code %r at indices %d and %dc C s� t j � } x$t j D]} t j d | � sK | r t d | � q q n t t | � } t | t � s| t
| � d k r� | r t d | | f � q q n | j d � } | | k r| r� t d | | f � n | | } | j | k rt
d | | | j f � � n | | =q t
d | | f � � q W| r�d g } x4 | j � D]& \ } } | j d
| j | f � qOWt
d j | � � � n d S( Nu [A-Z][A-Z0-9_]+$u0 skipping %r: it doesn't look like an opcode namei u5 skipping %r: value %r doesn't look like a pickle codeu latin-1u+ checking name %r w/ code %r for consistencyuB for pickle code %r, pickle.py uses name %r but we're using name %ruP pickle.py appears to have a pickle opcode with name %r and code %r, but we don'tu= we appear to have pickle opcodes that pickle.py doesn't have:u name %r with code %ru
( u code2opu copyu pickleu __all__u reu matchu printu getattru
isinstanceu bytesu lenu decodeu nameu
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picklecodeu du msgu code( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu assure_pickle_consistencyG s> "
u assure_pickle_consistencyc c s( t | t � r- d d l } | j | � } n t | d � rH | j } n d d � } x� | � } | j d � } t j | j d � � } | d k r� | d k r� t d � � q� t d
| d k r� d p� | | f � � n | j d k r� d } n | j j
| � } | | | f V| d k rW PqW qW d S(
ux Generate all the opcodes in a pickle.
'pickle' is a file-like object, or string, containing the pickle.
Each opcode in the pickle is generated, from the current pickle position,
stopping after a STOP opcode is delivered. A triple is generated for
each opcode:
opcode, arg, pos
opcode is an OpcodeInfo record, describing the current opcode.
If the opcode has an argument embedded in the pickle, arg is its decoded
value, as a Python object. If the opcode doesn't have an argument, arg
is None.
If the pickle has a tell() method, pos was the value of pickle.tell()
before reading the current opcode. If the pickle is a bytes object,
it's wrapped in a BytesIO object, and the latter's tell() result is
used. Else (the pickle doesn't have a tell(), and it's not obvious how
to query its current position) pos is None.
i Nu tellc S s d S( N( u None( ( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu <lambda>� s u genops.<locals>.<lambda>i u latin-1s u# pickle exhausted before seeing STOPu! at position %s, opcode %r unknownu <unknown>s .( u
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} | | k r� | n |
} | j | | | � � | } q� W| j | | d � � d j | � S( u7 Optimize a pickle string by removing unused PUT opcodesu PUTu GETi Ns ( u setu Noneu genopsu appendu nameu addu join(
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} Yq�Xq�d } } n | j d! k r| | k r�d | } qO| s�d } qO| d" t k rd } qO| d# | | <n8 | j d$ k rO| | k rB| | g } qOd | } n | d k sa| r�| d d t | j � 7} | d k r�| d t | � 7} n | r�| d | 7} q�n | r | d |
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7} n t | d | �| rAt | � � n t | � | k rrt d | t | � f � � n | r�| | d � =n t | k r�| j |
� n | j | � qJ Wt d | d | �| r�t d | � � n d S(% uK Produce a symbolic disassembly of a pickle.
'pickle' is a file-like object, or string, containing a (at least one)
pickle. The pickle is disassembled from the current position, through
the first STOP opcode encountered.
Optional arg 'out' is a file-like object to which the disassembly is
printed. It defaults to sys.stdout.
Optional arg 'memo' is a Python dict, used as the pickle's memo. It
may be mutated by dis(), if the pickle contains PUT or BINPUT opcodes.
Passing the same memo object to another dis() call then allows disassembly
to proceed across multiple pickles that were all created by the same
pickler with the same memo. Ordinarily you don't need to worry about this.
Optional arg 'indentlevel' is the number of blanks by which to indent
a new MARK level. It defaults to 4.
Optional arg 'annotate' if nonzero instructs dis() to add short
description of the opcode on each line of disassembled output.
The value given to 'annotate' must be an integer and is used as a
hint for the column where annotation should start. The default
value is 0, meaning no annotations.
In addition to printing the disassembly, some sanity checks are made:
+ All embedded opcode arguments "make sense".
+ Explicit and implicit pop operations have enough items on the stack.
+ When an opcode implicitly refers to a markobject, a markobject is
actually on the stack.
+ A memo entry isn't referenced before it's defined.
+ The markobject isn't stored in the memo.
+ A memo entry isn't redefined.
i u u %5d:u endu fileu %-4s %s%su POPu (MARK at unknown opcode offset)u (MARK at %d)i u no MARK exists on stacku PUTu BINPUTu LONG_BINPUTu memo key %r already definedu' stack is empty -- can't store into memou" can't store markobject in the memou GETu BINGETu LONG_BINGETu& memo key %r has never been stored intoi
i2 u
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markobjectu popu indexu
ValueErroru docu splitu appendu extend( u pickleu outu memou indentlevelu annotateu stacku maxprotou markstacku indentchunku errormsgu annocolu opcodeu argu posu lineu beforeu afteru numtopopu markmsgu markpos( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu dis� s� -
$ c B s | Ee Z d Z d d � Z d S( u _Examplec C s
| | _ d S( N( u value( u selfu value( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu __init__^ s u _Example.__init__N( u __name__u
__module__u __qualname__u __init__( u
__locals__( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu _Example] s u _Exampleu�
>>> import pickle
>>> x = [1, 2, (3, 4), {b'abc': "def"}]
>>> pkl0 = pickle.dumps(x, 0)
>>> dis(pkl0)
0: ( MARK
1: l LIST (MARK at 0)
2: p PUT 0
5: L LONG 1
9: a APPEND
10: L LONG 2
14: a APPEND
15: ( MARK
16: L LONG 3
20: L LONG 4
24: t TUPLE (MARK at 15)
25: p PUT 1
28: a APPEND
29: ( MARK
30: d DICT (MARK at 29)
31: p PUT 2
34: c GLOBAL '_codecs encode'
50: p PUT 3
53: ( MARK
54: V UNICODE 'abc'
59: p PUT 4
62: V UNICODE 'latin1'
70: p PUT 5
73: t TUPLE (MARK at 53)
74: p PUT 6
77: R REDUCE
78: p PUT 7
81: V UNICODE 'def'
86: p PUT 8
89: s SETITEM
90: a APPEND
91: . STOP
highest protocol among opcodes = 0
Try again with a "binary" pickle.
>>> pkl1 = pickle.dumps(x, 1)
>>> dis(pkl1)
0: ] EMPTY_LIST
1: q BINPUT 0
3: ( MARK
4: K BININT1 1
6: K BININT1 2
8: ( MARK
9: K BININT1 3
11: K BININT1 4
13: t TUPLE (MARK at 8)
14: q BINPUT 1
16: } EMPTY_DICT
17: q BINPUT 2
19: c GLOBAL '_codecs encode'
35: q BINPUT 3
37: ( MARK
38: X BINUNICODE 'abc'
46: q BINPUT 4
48: X BINUNICODE 'latin1'
59: q BINPUT 5
61: t TUPLE (MARK at 37)
62: q BINPUT 6
64: R REDUCE
65: q BINPUT 7
67: X BINUNICODE 'def'
75: q BINPUT 8
77: s SETITEM
78: e APPENDS (MARK at 3)
79: . STOP
highest protocol among opcodes = 1
Exercise the INST/OBJ/BUILD family.
>>> import pickletools
>>> dis(pickle.dumps(pickletools.dis, 0))
0: c GLOBAL 'pickletools dis'
17: p PUT 0
20: . STOP
highest protocol among opcodes = 0
>>> from pickletools import _Example
>>> x = [_Example(42)] * 2
>>> dis(pickle.dumps(x, 0))
0: ( MARK
1: l LIST (MARK at 0)
2: p PUT 0
5: c GLOBAL 'copy_reg _reconstructor'
30: p PUT 1
33: ( MARK
34: c GLOBAL 'pickletools _Example'
56: p PUT 2
59: c GLOBAL '__builtin__ object'
79: p PUT 3
82: N NONE
83: t TUPLE (MARK at 33)
84: p PUT 4
87: R REDUCE
88: p PUT 5
91: ( MARK
92: d DICT (MARK at 91)
93: p PUT 6
96: V UNICODE 'value'
103: p PUT 7
106: L LONG 42
111: s SETITEM
112: b BUILD
113: a APPEND
114: g GET 5
117: a APPEND
118: . STOP
highest protocol among opcodes = 0
>>> dis(pickle.dumps(x, 1))
0: ] EMPTY_LIST
1: q BINPUT 0
3: ( MARK
4: c GLOBAL 'copy_reg _reconstructor'
29: q BINPUT 1
31: ( MARK
32: c GLOBAL 'pickletools _Example'
54: q BINPUT 2
56: c GLOBAL '__builtin__ object'
76: q BINPUT 3
78: N NONE
79: t TUPLE (MARK at 31)
80: q BINPUT 4
82: R REDUCE
83: q BINPUT 5
85: } EMPTY_DICT
86: q BINPUT 6
88: X BINUNICODE 'value'
98: q BINPUT 7
100: K BININT1 42
102: s SETITEM
103: b BUILD
104: h BINGET 5
106: e APPENDS (MARK at 3)
107: . STOP
highest protocol among opcodes = 1
Try "the canonical" recursive-object test.
>>> L = []
>>> T = L,
>>> L.append(T)
>>> L[0] is T
True
>>> T[0] is L
True
>>> L[0][0] is L
True
>>> T[0][0] is T
True
>>> dis(pickle.dumps(L, 0))
0: ( MARK
1: l LIST (MARK at 0)
2: p PUT 0
5: ( MARK
6: g GET 0
9: t TUPLE (MARK at 5)
10: p PUT 1
13: a APPEND
14: . STOP
highest protocol among opcodes = 0
>>> dis(pickle.dumps(L, 1))
0: ] EMPTY_LIST
1: q BINPUT 0
3: ( MARK
4: h BINGET 0
6: t TUPLE (MARK at 3)
7: q BINPUT 1
9: a APPEND
10: . STOP
highest protocol among opcodes = 1
Note that, in the protocol 0 pickle of the recursive tuple, the disassembler
has to emulate the stack in order to realize that the POP opcode at 16 gets
rid of the MARK at 0.
>>> dis(pickle.dumps(T, 0))
0: ( MARK
1: ( MARK
2: l LIST (MARK at 1)
3: p PUT 0
6: ( MARK
7: g GET 0
10: t TUPLE (MARK at 6)
11: p PUT 1
14: a APPEND
15: 0 POP
16: 0 POP (MARK at 0)
17: g GET 1
20: . STOP
highest protocol among opcodes = 0
>>> dis(pickle.dumps(T, 1))
0: ( MARK
1: ] EMPTY_LIST
2: q BINPUT 0
4: ( MARK
5: h BINGET 0
7: t TUPLE (MARK at 4)
8: q BINPUT 1
10: a APPEND
11: 1 POP_MARK (MARK at 0)
12: h BINGET 1
14: . STOP
highest protocol among opcodes = 1
Try protocol 2.
>>> dis(pickle.dumps(L, 2))
0: \x80 PROTO 2
2: ] EMPTY_LIST
3: q BINPUT 0
5: h BINGET 0
7: \x85 TUPLE1
8: q BINPUT 1
10: a APPEND
11: . STOP
highest protocol among opcodes = 2
>>> dis(pickle.dumps(T, 2))
0: \x80 PROTO 2
2: ] EMPTY_LIST
3: q BINPUT 0
5: h BINGET 0
7: \x85 TUPLE1
8: q BINPUT 1
10: a APPEND
11: 0 POP
12: h BINGET 1
14: . STOP
highest protocol among opcodes = 2
Try protocol 3 with annotations:
>>> dis(pickle.dumps(T, 3), annotate=1)
0: \x80 PROTO 3 Protocol version indicator.
2: ] EMPTY_LIST Push an empty list.
3: q BINPUT 0 Store the stack top into the memo. The stack is not popped.
5: h BINGET 0 Read an object from the memo and push it on the stack.
7: \x85 TUPLE1 Build a one-tuple out of the topmost item on the stack.
8: q BINPUT 1 Store the stack top into the memo. The stack is not popped.
10: a APPEND Append an object to a list.
11: 0 POP Discard the top stack item, shrinking the stack by one item.
12: h BINGET 1 Read an object from the memo and push it on the stack.
14: . STOP Stop the unpickling machine.
highest protocol among opcodes = 2
u=
>>> import pickle
>>> import io
>>> f = io.BytesIO()
>>> p = pickle.Pickler(f, 2)
>>> x = [1, 2, 3]
>>> p.dump(x)
>>> p.dump(x)
>>> f.seek(0)
0
>>> memo = {}
>>> dis(f, memo=memo)
0: \x80 PROTO 2
2: ] EMPTY_LIST
3: q BINPUT 0
5: ( MARK
6: K BININT1 1
8: K BININT1 2
10: K BININT1 3
12: e APPENDS (MARK at 5)
13: . STOP
highest protocol among opcodes = 2
>>> dis(f, memo=memo)
14: \x80 PROTO 2
16: h BINGET 0
18: . STOP
highest protocol among opcodes = 2
u disassembler_testu disassembler_memo_testc C s d d l } | j � S( Ni ( u doctestu testmod( u doctest( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu _test� s u _testu __main__u descriptionu$ disassemble one or more pickle filesu pickle_fileu typeu bru nargsu *u helpu the pickle fileu -ou --outputu defaultu wu+ the file where the output should be writtenu -mu --memou actionu
store_trueu# preserve memo between disassembliesu -lu
--indentlevelu8 the number of blanks by which to indent a new MARK levelu -au
--annotateu2 annotate each line with a short opcode descriptionu -pu
--preambleu ==> {name} <==uM if more than one pickle file is specified, print this before each disassemblyu -tu --testu run self-test suiteu -vu) run verbosely; only affects self-test runi u
(} u __doc__u codecsu pickleu reu sysu __all__u bytes_typesu
UP_TO_NEWLINEu TAKEN_FROM_ARGUMENT1u TAKEN_FROM_ARGUMENT4u TAKEN_FROM_ARGUMENT4Uu objectu ArgumentDescriptoru structu unpacku _unpacku
read_uint1u uint1u
read_uint2u uint2u read_int4u int4u
read_uint4u uint4u Trueu
read_stringnlu stringnlu read_stringnl_noescapeu stringnl_noescapeu read_stringnl_noescape_pairu stringnl_noescape_pairu read_string4u string4u read_string1u string1u read_bytes1u bytes1u read_bytes4u bytes4u read_unicodestringnlu unicodestringnlu read_unicodestring4u unicodestring4u read_decimalnl_shortu read_decimalnl_longu decimalnl_shortu decimalnl_longu read_floatnlu floatnlu read_float8u float8u decode_longu
read_long1u long1u
read_long4u long4u StackObjectu intu pyintu pylongu boolu pyinteger_or_boolu pyboolu floatu pyfloatu bytesu pystringu pybytesu stru pyunicodeu typeu Noneu pynoneu tupleu pytupleu listu pylistu dictu pydictu anyobjectu
markobjectu
stacksliceu
OpcodeInfou Iu opcodesu name2iu code2iu enumerateu iu du nameu
ValueErroru codeu code2opu Falseu assure_pickle_consistencyu genopsu optimizeu disu _Exampleu _dis_testu
_memo_testu __test__u _testu __name__u argparseu ArgumentParseru parseru add_argumentu FileTypeu stdoutu
parse_argsu argsu testu annotateu pickle_fileu
print_helpu lenu outputu indentlevelu memou fu preambleu formatu write( ( ( u0 /opt/alt/python33/lib64/python3.3/pickletools.pyu <module> s �# /
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